Zworykin developed
iconoscope- 1st camera tube
Farnsworth transmitted
1st electronic TV picture
“Freeze”
By 1948, TV as a mass
medium begins
FCC has issued 100+
station licenses
CBS & NBC start
their network programming.
FCC calls a “freeze”
on new TV station licenses in 1948
Freeze lasts until
1952 to work out these and other problems
Nielsen started
tracking what the nation’s audience plays back on its digital video recorders
(DVR’s)
Local TV Ratings
Nielsen
surveys all 210 local “TV markets”
National TV
Ratings
Nielsen Media Research estimates audiences for network programs
Sample Size: 10,000 households nationwide.
Uses peoplemeter technology-Placed in household
for 2 years; automatically records channel tuning
Rating – Percentage of households/people tuned to a
program
Share – Percentage of households/people tuned to a
program, based on those actually using their sets at the time of sample.
Internet Ratings-Panels of approximately 30,000 computer users
that agree to have their Web browzing monitored through interviews and through
“meters”
FCC’s Financial Interest and Syndication Rule “Fin Syn”
TV Developmental Process
Producer “pitches” a concept Tells the network
about the premise and key characters
Treatment written, describing
the character arcs, future episodes, etc.
Script(s) written and
evaluated
Pilot (sample episode)
produced and evaluated
Deficit financing: Production cost –
License fee = Deficit
CATV – Community Antenna Television
Devised by appliance store dealers and electronics firms, late 1940s
Needed to get TV programming to rural, remote areas
Must-carry rules
Required cable operators to carry all local TV broadcasts
Local stations benefited from cable’s clearer reception
Public access and leased channels
Geosynchronous orbit
satellites for domestic television relays.
Transponders –
satellite receive/transmit functions.
HBO subsidized satellite receiving dish purchases
by cable systems
1st subscriber service/national cable tv
Narrowcasting- Specialized programming for diverse groups
Headend- computerized nerve center
Fiber Optic- Relays programming to attached utility poles
Franchising- Local community
awards monopoly to selected cable company
Most cable systems owned by a Multiple System Operator (MSO)
Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS)
DBS bypasses cable to get programming directly
from satellite.
Early satellite dishes huge and expensive
FCC restricted DBS services in 1970s and
1980s.
Full, legalized DBS services in 1994
Consumers pay fee for a tier of service
Local broadcast signals
Local nonbroadcast channels
Product placement (logo, etc.) is digitally inserted in a shot/scene of a
program/film.
Commercial speech is
far more proscribed by case law than other kinds of speech.
Intended to cause money exchange
Famous-person testimonial
Bandwagon
Snob appeal
Hidden fear
Plain folks
Irritation- “Head On/ Active On”
Association Principle- Product associated with some cultural icon or
value
Monopoly – when a
single firm dominates production and/or distribution in an industry
Oligopoly – when a small number of firms dominate an
industry, typically due to barriers to entry
Limited Competition when many buyers and sellers exist, but little
differentiation in
Direct payment – media products supported primarily by the
consumers who pay directly for them, such as CD, DVD, cable subscription, movie
ticket sales, music/video downloads.
Indirect payment
– advertisers pay media
companies for the quantity and quality of audiences they deliver
Synergy – separate
corporate entities working together can achieve results that none could obtain
individually
fin/syn” rules once
barred networks from financial ownership
Young people have many more movies designed for
them than their numbers in the U.S. population warrant – almost half of the movie audience, but only
25% of the population is aged between 12—30.
Major
Studios
Indie company:
Any film production or distribution co. that works outside of the studio
system.
Studio Specialty Divisions- they acquire movies made by independent
filmmakers
v
Authoritarian Model
·
Government issues licenses to privately owned
media outlets
v
Communist (or state) Model
·
Government control and/or ownership of the press
v
Models of Expression
·
Social Responsibility Model
o
Characterizes mainstream media in U.S. and most democracies
·
Libertarian Model
o
Characterizes alternative media.
o
Trust placed in citizens’ ability to discern the
truth
v
First Amendment of U.S. Constitution
·
No law respecting establishment of religion; or abridging the freedom of speech/press; or the right of the people to assemble/petition the Government.
Censorship
·
First Amendment protects people from Government
action- not from other people’s speech or decisions about speech Only governmental “prior restraint” is
truly censorship
·
Libel:
Defamation by published untrue words that may expose a subject to
hatred, shame, or disgrace.
Libel Defense:
· Truth
· Qualified Privilege
· Opinion and Fair Comment
Section 315 of the Communications Act of 1934:
· Section 315 is very specific:
· Broadcaster has no control over the candidate’s
“use” . . . and is not held liable for any libelous or defamatory material.
· Broadcasters cannot refuse or edit candidates’
ads which include graphic depictions, such as aborted fetuses
·
However: Section 315 does not protect obscene
or indecent material
o
Equal
time must be provided for
a candidate any time another candidate appears on the air for “free,” even if
it is not campaign-related.
o
If a candidate purchases time on a station, other candidates are entitled
to equal opportunity to make similar purchases
Theory
A
general explanation of a phenomenon
Hypothesis
Statement predicting relationship between
independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s)
Must be worded so that it is testable
Uses
and Gratifications- Focus is on the audience members rather than
the message.
Copyright-
Protection for… original works of authorship fixed in ant tangible
medium of expression now known or later developed
Payne Fund Studies:
·
First major social-scientific study of the
effects of media on kids and adolescents
o
Focused on content of movies, emotional impact
of movies, behavioral studies.
o
War
of the World- depended on situational and personal characteristics
·
Minimal effects model evolved out of the
findings that the influence of mass communications were limited. Overall media effects were weak, not powerful
Media
Effect Research Methods
·
Pros:
Real world setting, correlation between variable, measures large # of
variables
·
Cons:
Cant show cause/effect
Content
Analysis
·
Pros: Accurate/detailed, provide quantifiable
data
·
Cons:
Problems defining, cant measure origins of effects, may neglect the
context
Positive
effect from Violence?
·
Less aggression as a result of viewing media
violence
o
Catharsis Theory
§
Limited or no evidence
4
Step Social Learning Theory:
·
Attention
·
Retention
·
Performance
·
Motivation
Roles
of Journalism
·
To Inform
o
Watchdog
o
Junkyard dog
·
To Persuade
o
Public Journalism
·
To Entertain
Bias
on TV
·
TV driven by technology
·
Sound byte news
·
Broadcast format forces compression
·
Journalists believe celebrities
Fake
News/Satiric journalism
·
Appeals to many cynical young people
·
Critiques the unimaginative quality of
traditional stories
Nolan
Bushnell
·
Started VG revolution, Computer space was first
game. Then he made Pong
Movie
studios “greenlight” films by risk reduction strategy
Diversification
protects a studio against changing
Studios
bet on star power
·
Producers usually need one or more stars before
the studio will consider green-lighting the project.
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